π There is no upper limit of water content (w)
i.e. w ≥ 100%
π Void ratio (e) can be greater than unity
e > 1
π The value of porosity (Ξ·) lies in between 0 to 100%
i.e. 0 < Ξ· < 100
π Degree of Saturation (S)
0 ≤ S ≤ 100%
π Sum of air content (A.C) and degree of saturation (S) should be unity or 100%
i.e. A.C + S = 100% or 1
π Comparison between Unit weight of solid (Ys), Saturated unit weight (Ysat), Bulk unit weight (Yb), Dry unit weight (Yd) and Submerged unit weight (Ysub)
Ys > Ysat > Yb > Yd > Ysub
πApproximate value of Ys, Ysat, Yb, Yd and Ysub
Ysub ⋍ 10 kN/m^3
Yd ⋍ 14 - 15 kN/m^3
Yb ⋍ 17 - 18 kN/m^3
Ysat ⋍ 20 kN/m^3
Ys ⋍ 26-29 kN/m^3
πFor inorganic solid Specific gravity of solids (Gs) is in the range of 2.6 to 2.9 (generally 2.65).
π For organic solids Specific gravity of solids (Gs) is in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 (generally 1.2).
π Higher value of Gs for fine grained as compare to coarse grained solids
π With increase in organic content in the soil Gs decreases (↓)
π With increase in mineral content like Iron or Mica, Gs increases (↑)
π Specific gravity of solids (Gs) > Mass specific gravity (Gm)
π In India Specific gravity is reported at 27 ℃ and if it is required at any other temperature the corresponding change in the unit weight of the water is to be considered.
Gs (T ℃ ) = Gs (27 ℃) x [ Yw(27 ℃)/Yw (T ℃)]
π The value of Density Index / Relative density / Degree of density (Id) lies in between 0 to 100% including 0 and 100%.
i.e. 0 ≤ Id ≤ 100%
π Id (%) Degree of denseness
0-15 Very Loose Soil
15-35 Loose Soil
35-65 Medium Dense Soil
65-85 Dense Soil
85-100 Very Dense Soil
π Relative compaction (Rc) indicates the compactness of both cohesive and cohesionless soil.
Rc = Yd (in field) / Ydmax (in laboratory)
Rc = ( 1 + emin) / (1 + e )
Rc = 80 + 0.2 Id
π If e = emax , Id = 0% , Rc = 80%
π If e = emin , Id = 100% , Rc = 100%
πFor uniformly graded soil coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is 1. For well graded sand Cu > 6 and for well graded gravel Cu > 4.
π For well graded soil Coefficient of curvature (Cc) is in the range of 1 to 3, for gap graded soil Cc <1 and > 3.
π Types of soil Liquid Limit (%)
Gravel Non-plastic
Sand Non-plastic
Silt 30-40
Clay (Alluvial Soil) 40-150
Clay (Black Soil) 400-500
π Types of soil Plastic limit (%)
Gravel Non-plastic
Sand Non-plastic
Silt 20-25
Clay (Alluvial Soil) 25-50
Clay (Black Soil) 200-250
π Types of soil Plasticity Index (%)
Gravel Non-plastic
Sand Non-plastic
Silt 10-15
Clay (Alluvial Soil) 15-100
Clay (Black Soil) 200-250
π Designation Plasticity Index (%)
Non-plastic soil 0
Low plastic soil < 7
Medium plastic soil 7 - 17
Highly plastic soil > 17
π Sensitivity Description
1 Insensitive soil (Coarse grained structure)
2 - 4 Normal/less sensitive soil (Honey Comb Structure)
4 - 8 Sensitive soil (Honey comb/ Flocculant structure)
8 -16 Extra Sensitive soil (Flocculant/ Dispersed structure )
> 16 Quick / Unstable Soil
π Sensitivity is inversely proportional to Good quality of soil.
πCoarse grained soil are less sensitive as compare to Fine grained soil.
π Skempton defined a parameter referred as Activity (Ac) which is used to indicate the compressibility of the soil (Swelling, Shrinkage of the soil with change in water content).
π Ac defined as the ratio of Plasticity index of the soil to the % age of the particle finer than 2 ΞΌ (Clay size).
π Activity (Ac) Description
< 0.75 Inactive Soil
0.75 - 1.25 Normal Active soil
> 1.25 Active soil
π A linear relationship exist in the plot of Plasticity index (Ip) on the y-axis and % of particle finer than 2 ΞΌ (% clay particle, C) on the x-axis. Slope of Ip Vs C gives the activity (Ac).
π Compressibility = fn ( Activity, Liquid limit)
π Type of Minerals Activity (Ac)
Kaolinite 0.40 - 0.50
Illite 0.50 - 1.0
Montmorillonite 1 - 7
Na-Montmorillonite 4 - 7
Ca-Montmorillonite 1- 5
π Collapsibility of soil is the property by the virtue of which it shows large decrease in volume with increase in water content without any increase in pressure being applied over it.
π Collapsibility of the soil is measured in terms of the parameter referred as Collapse Potential that can be determined by performing plate load test.
π Collapse potential is defined as the ratio of decrease in the volume of soil with increase in water content expressed in terms of original volume of soil.
Collapse Potential (Cp) = △V / Vo = △H / Ho = △e / (1+eo)
π Collapse Potential (Cp) Effect on Structure
0 - 1 % No effect
1 - 5 % Less effect
5 - 10 % Moderate effect
10 - 20 % Severe effect
> 20 % Very Severe effect
π The height of capillary rise (hc) in fine grained soil is comparatively more than the height of capillary rise in coarse grained soil as hc is inversely proportional to D10.
π Types of Soil hc (cm)
Gravel 2-10
Sand 10 - 100
Silt 100 - 1000
Clay 1000 - 3000
π Permeability (k) of coarse grained soil is more than the permeability of fine grained soil.
π Type of soil k (cm/sec)
Gravel > 1
Sand 1 - 10^-3
Silt 10^-3 - 10^-7
Clay < 10^-7
π Property Dry of Optimum Wet of Optimum
1. Structure Flocculant Dispersed
2. Permeability More (↑) Less (↓)
3. Pore Water Pressure Less (↓) More (↑)
4. Swelling More (↑) Less (↓)
5. Shrinkage Less (↓) More (↑)
6. Compressibility
At low stress Less (↓) More (↑)
At high stress More (↑) Less (↓)
7. Strength More (↑) Less (↓)
8. Young's Modulus of Elasticity More (↑) Less (↓)
π Type of Soil At-rest Earth pressure Coefficient (Ko)
Dense Sand 0.40 - 0.45
Loose sand 0.45 - 0.50
Normally consolidated Soil (OCR = 1) 0.50 - 0.60
Over Consolidated Soil (OCR > 1) 1 - 4
π For Active Stage strain required is in the order of 0.2 to 0.5 %
π For Passive stage strain required is in the order of 5 to 15 %
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